The clandestine press in Poland

Clandestine publishing was a key part of resistence during the Second Wrorld War, and it is estimated that around 9,000 different titles were produced in countries occupied by the Axis armies. It was a nonviolent form of resistance, but one with fatal risks: the secretary of the Dutch section of War Resisters' International, Piet Zuydendorp, was executed for illegal publishing in 1944. MARTYN LOWE looks at the case of Poland, and brings the story up to date with the emergence of another generation of clandestine publishing during the 1980s.

The Poles established an underground state with its own courts and its own educational system. Some 9,000 people went through underground institutes of higher education in Warsaw alone, while universities operated clandestinely throughout the country. In 2,000 underground secondary schools, around 65,000 children received an independent education. Soup kitchens and relief centres operated openly.

Clandestine publishing was a widespread and successful resistance activity. In Warsaw, 18 clandestine newspapers were established in 1939; by 1944 this number had risen to 166. Altogether around 1,400 clandestine titles were produced throughout Poland during the course of the occupation. During the Warsaw uprising, the clandestine press played an important role in spreading news and information to the population. At that time, there were about 130 clandestine daily newspapers, with print runs that varied between 1,000 and 28,000 copies. Within the Warsaw Ghetto there existed 46 different titles.

Glospolski [Voice of Poland]; Warts [The Watch]; Sprawa [The Cause]; Insurekcja [Insurrection]; Robotnik W Waice [Workers' struggle]; Ajencja Prasowa [Press Agency]; and Radio Londyn were some of the Polish-language titles. There were also Belarussian, Jewish, and Ukrainian papers. On one occasion, a fake version of the official Nazi newspaper--with uncensored news--was produced.

Clandestine publishing was not restricted to newspapers. Pamphlets and books were also produced. One example of these was "The Squadren 303" by Arkady Fiedler, which had a print-run of 4,000 copies. This was an account of the Battle of Britain. Although most of these clandestine newspapers were duplicated, some were also produced on letterpress machines.

>>> Spreading discontent

One of the most successful clandestine publishing activities of the Polish resistance was conducted by the Bureau of Political Information attached to the resistance organisation ZWZ. This project, known as ´Action N', produced leaflets, newspapers, and pamphlets which appeared to originate in Germany, but which in fact were published in Poland. These publications were distributed throughout Germany by a network of agents, consisting mainly of railway workers, who left the literature in public places or posted it to individuals. This ploy led the Gestapo to believe that dissident activity in Germany was much more widespread than was actually the case. Indeed, The Gestapo became convinced that some of the leaflets had originated in Munich, presumably from the White Rose group [which distributed leaflets against the war until the execution of Hans and Sophie Schell in 1944]. ´Action N' publications also helped to spread discontent within the German army. The distribution of such works was a dangerous activity, and some of the railway workers who were involved in this work died as a result.

>>> The Warsaw ghetto

The Jewish Historical Institute is a museum and library, in which the history of Polish Jewry is both researched and displayed. At the time that I visited the museum in February 1995, there was an exhibition about the history and daily life within the Warsaw Ghetto. On display were some of the clandestine newspapers that were produced within the Ghetto--Morgn Frajhait [Morning Freedom]; Yugnt Shtyme [Voice of the Young] and Proletarisher Gedank [Proletarian thoughts] among others.

Perhaps the most interesting holding of the Jewish History Institute is the Ringelblum archive. Dr Emanual Ringelbaum collected a group of people around him and created a secret archive of daily life in the Warsaw ghetto. With the destruction of the ghetto this archive was hidden, and only came to light after the Second World War.

>>> Poland during martial law

The period of martial law in the `80s also saw much clandestine publishing in Poland. As during the Nazi occupation, those who engaged upon such activities ran high risks, although not so much to their lives, but to their freedom. As within the previous period, it was the humble duplicator upon which much of the clandestine press was produced.

The period of martial law lasted from 13 December 1981 until 31 December 1988. During that period many clandestine pamphlets, newspapers and books were publish. According to the periodical Voice of Solidarity, by October 1986 Solidarnosc alone had published some 920 newspapers.

What is particularly fascinating about the clandestine publishing under martial law is the way in which these works were produced. For example, one method of manufacturing ink involved mixing soot and washing up detergent.

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Abridged from a longer paper (with exhaustive references and contacts). The last book in English that covered the clandestine press in all of occupied Europe was published before the end of the war (Vincent Brome Europe's free Press: The underground newspapers of occupied lands described as far as the censor permits Feature Books, London).